Sanskrit 2010 Sanskrit Images

Infobox Language

name=Sanskrit
nativename=''
pronunciation=
region=Greater India
speakers= 14,135 native speakers in India (2001)
familycolor=Indo-European
fam2=Indo-Iranian
fam3=Indo-Aryan
script=Devanāgarī (''de facto''), various Brāhmī–based scripts, and Latin alphabet
nation= (Uttarakhand)
one of the 22 scheduled languages of India
iso1=sa|iso2=san|iso3=san
notice=Indic
Sanskrit ('', properly '''', "refined speech"), is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism and Buddhism Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of , around the 4th century BCE. Its position in the cultures of Greater India is akin to that of Latin and Greek in Europe and it has significantly influenced most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in India and Nepal. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, its oldest core dating back to as early as 1500 BCE. The corpus of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical and Hindu religious texts. Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of hymns and mantras. Spoken Sanskrit is still in use in a few traditional institutions in India, and there are many attempts at revival.

Etymology

The Sanskrit verbal adjective '''' may be translated as "put together, well or completely formed, refined, highly elaborated". where '''' "do, make". The language referred to as '''' meaning the "divine language" or the "language of devas or demigods".

History

manuscript on palm-leaf, in an early Bhujimol script, Bihar or Nepal, 11th century. Sanskrit is a member of the Indo-Iranian sub-family of the Indo-European family of languages. Its closest ancient relatives are the Iranian languages Old Persian and Avestan. In order to explain the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages, many scholars have proposed migration hypotheses asserting that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in what is now India and Pakistan from the north-west some time during the early second millennium BCE. The earliest attested Sanskrit texts are Hindu texts of the Rigveda, which date to the mid-to-late second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive. However, scholars are confident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they were ceremonial literature whose correct pronunciation was considered crucial to its religious efficacy. From the Rigveda until the time of (fl. 4th century BCE) the development of the Sanskrit language may be observed in other Hindu texts: the Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, and Upanishads. During this time, the prestige of the language, its use for sacred purposes, and the importance attached to its correct enunciation all served as powerful conservative forces resisting the normal processes of linguistic change. The oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar is 's time. The term "Sanskrit" was not thought of as a specific language set apart from other languages, but rather as a particularly refined or perfected manner of speaking. Knowledge of Sanskrit was a marker of social class and educational attainment in ancient India and the language was taught mainly to members of the higher castes, through close analysis of Sanskrit grammarians such as . Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside the Prakrits (vernaculars), which evolved into the Middle Indic dialects, and eventually into the contemporary modern Indo-Aryan languages. =

Vedic Sanskrit

= Sanskrit, as defined by Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or "Pāṇinian" Sanskrit as separate 'dialects'. Though they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a large collection of hymns, incantations (Samhitas), theological discussions, and religio-philosophical discussions (Brahmanas, Upanishads) which are the earliest religious texts of the Hindu religion. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, composed by many authors over centuries of oral tradition. The end of the Vedic period is marked by the composition of the Upanishads, which form the concluding part of the Vedic corpus in the traditional compilations. Around the mid 1st millennium BCE, Sanskrit began the transition from a first language to a second language of religion and learning, marking the beginning of the Classical period.

Classical Sanskrit

For nearly 2,000 years, a cultural order existed that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent, East Asia. According to ).

Decline

There are a number of sociolinguistic studies of spoken Sanskrit which strongly suggests that in this oral use it is limited and is not developing.

Both died slowly, and earliest as a vehicle of literary expression, while much longer retaining significance for learned discourse with its universalist claims. Both were subject to periodic renewals or forced rebirths, sometimes in connection with a politics of translocal aspiration… At the same time… both came to be ever more exclusively associated with narrow forms of religion and priestcraft, despite centuries of a secular aesthetic.

The decline of Sanskrit use in literary and political circles was likely due to a weakening of the political institutions that supported it, and to heightened competition with vernacular languages seeking literary-cultural dignity. Despite this presumed "death" of Sanskrit and the literary use of vernacular languages, Sanskrit continued to be used in literary cultures in India, and those who could read vernacular languages could also read Sanskrit.

European scholarship

European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by Heinrich Roth (1620–1668) and Johann Ernst Hanxleden (1681–1731), is regarded as responsible for the discovery of the Indo-European language family by Sir William Jones. This scholarship played an important role in the development of Western linguistics. Sir William Jones, speaking to the Asiatic Society in Calcutta (now Kolkata) on February 2, 1786, said:

The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong, indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists.

Phonology

Classical Sanskrit distinguishes about 36 phonemes. There is, however, some allophony and the writing systems used for Sanskrit generally indicate this, thus distinguishing 48 sounds. The sounds are traditionally listed in the order vowels (''Ach''), diphthongs (''Hal''), anusvara and visarga, plosives (Sparśa) and nasals (starting in the back of the mouth and moving forward), and finally the liquids and fricatives, written in IAST as follows (see the tables below for details): : : : : An alternate traditional ordering is that of the Shiva Sutra of .

Vowels

The vowels of Classical Sanskrit with their word-initial Devanagari symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant ), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and of /p/+vowel) in IPA, equivalent in IAST and (approximate) equivalents in English are listed below: _

Influence

Modern-day India

=

Influence on vernaculars

= Sanskrit's greatest influence, presumably, is that which it exerted on languages of India that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base; for instance Hindi, which is a "Sanskritized register" of the Khariboli dialect. However, all modern Indo-Aryan languages as well as Munda and Dravidian languages, have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (''tatsama'' words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (''tadbhava'' words). and the literary forms of (Dravidian) Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada. Sanskrit is prized as a storehouse of scripture and the language of prayers in Hinduism. Like Latin's influence on European languages and Classical Chinese's influence on East Asian languages, Sanskrit has influenced most Indian languages. While vernacular prayer is common, Sanskrit mantras are recited by millions of Hindus and most temple functions are conducted entirely in Sanskrit, often Vedic in form. Of modern day Indian languages, while Hindi and Urdu tend to be more heavily weighted with Arabic and Persian influence, Nepali, Bengali, Assamese, Konkani and Marathi still retain a largely Sanskrit and Prakrit vocabulary base. The Indian national anthem, Jana Gana Mana, is written in a literary form of Bengali (known as ''sadhu bhasha''), Sanskritized so as to be recognizable, but still archaic to the modern ear. The national song of India Vande Mataram was originally a poem composed by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and taken from his book called 'Anandamath', is in a similarly highly Sanskritized Bengali. Malayalam, Telugu and Kannada also combine a great deal of Sanskrit vocabulary. Sanskrit also has influence on Chinese through Buddhist Sutras. Chinese words like 剎那 ''chànà'' (Skt. क्षन '''' 'instantaneous period of time') were borrowed from Sanskrit. =

Revival attempts

= The 1991 and 2001, census of India recorded 49,736 and 14,135 persons, respectively, with Sanskrit as their native language. Since the 1990s, efforts to revive spoken Sanskrit have been increasing. Many organizations like the ''Samskrta Bharati'' are conducting Speak Sanskrit workshops to popularize the language. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its second official language. The ''CBSE'' (Central Board of Secondary Education) of India has made Sanskrit a third language (though it is an option for the school to adopt it or not, the other choice being the state's own official language) in the schools it governs. In such schools, learning Sanskrit is an option for grades 5 to 8 (Classes V to VIII). This is true of most schools affiliated to the ICSE board too, especially in those states where the official language is Hindi. Sudharma, the only daily newspaper in Sanskrit has been published out of Mysore in India since the year 1970. Since 1974, there has been a short daily news broadcast on All India Radio. In these Indian villages, inhabitants of all castes speak Sanskrit natively since childhood: #Mattur in Karnataka, #Jhiri, District: Rajgadh, Madhya Pradesh, #Ganoda, District: Banswada, Rajasthan, #Bawali, District: Bagapat, Uttar Pradesh #Mohad, District: Narasinhpur, Madhya Pradesh

Symbolic usage

In the Republic of India, in Nepal and Indonesia, Sanskrit phrases are widely used as mottoes for various educational and social organizations (much as Latin is used by some institutions in the West). The motto of the Republic is also in Sanskrit. ; Republic of India : 'सत्यमेव जयते' ''Satyameva Jayate'' "Truth alone triumphs" ; Nepal : 'जननी जन्मभूमिश्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी' ''Janani Janmabhūmisca Svargādapi garīyasi'' "Mother and motherland are greater than heaven" ; Goa : 'सर्वे भद्राणि पश्यन्तु मा कश्चित् दुःखभाग्‌ भवेत्' ''Sarve Bhadrāni Paśyantu Mā Kaścid Duhkhabhāg bhavet'' "May all perceive good, may not anyone attain unhappiness" ; Life Insurance Corporation of India : 'योगक्षेमम् वहाम्यहम्' , ''Yogakshemam Vahāmyaham'' "I shall take care of welfare" (taken from the Bhagavad Gita) ; Indian Navy : 'शं नो वरुणः' ''Shanno Varuna'' "May Varuna be peaceful to us" ; Indian Air Force : 'नभःस्पृशं दीप्तम्' ''Nabhaḥ-Spṛśaṃ Dīptam'' "Touching the Sky with Glory" ; Mumbai Police : 'सद्रक्षणाय खलनिग्रहणाय' ''Sadrakshanaaya Khalanigrahanaaya'' "For protection of the good and control of the wicked" ; Indian Coast Guard : 'वयम् रक्षामः' ''Vayam Rakshāmaha'' "We protect" ; All India Radio : 'बहुजनहिताय बहुजन‍सुखाय‌' ''Bahujana-hitāya bahujana-sukhāya'' "For the benefit of all, for the comfort of all" ; Indonesian Navy : 'जलेष्वेव जयामहे' ''Jalesveva Jayamahe'' "On the Sea We Are Glorious" ; Aceh Province : 'पञ्चचित' ''Pancacita'' "Five Goals" Many of the post–Independence educational institutions of national importance in India and Sri Lanka have Sanskrit mottoes. For a fuller list of such educational institutions, see List of educational institutions which have Sanskrit phrases as their mottoes.

Interaction with other languages

Sanskrit and related languages have also influenced their Sino-Tibetan-speaking neighbors to the north through the spread of Buddhist texts in translation. Buddhism was spread to China by Mahayanist missionaries sent by Emperor Ashoka mostly through translations of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit texts, and many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. (Although Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit is not Sanskrit, properly speaking, its grammar and vocabulary are substantially the same, both because of genetic relationship, and because of conscious implementation of Pāṇinian standardizations on the part of composers. Buddhist texts composed in Sanskrit proper were primarily found in philosophical schools like the Madhyamaka.) The situation in Tibet is similar; many Sanskrit texts survive only in Tibetan translation (in the Tanjur). The Thai language contains many loan words from Sanskrit. For example, in Thai, the Rāvana – the emperor of Sri Lanka is called 'Thosakanth' which is a derivation of his Sanskrit name 'Dashakanth' ("of ten necks"). Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in traditional Malay, Modern Indonesian, and numerous Philippine languages, and to a lesser extent, Cambodian, Vietnamese, through Sinified hybrid Sanskrit.

Usage in modern times

Many of India's and Nepal's scientific and administrative terms are named in Sanskrit, as a counterpart of the western practice of naming scientific developments in Latin or Greek. The Indian guided missile program that was commenced in 1983 by DRDO has named the five missiles (ballistic and others) that it has developed as Prithvi, Agni, Akash, Nag and Trishul. India's first modern fighter aircraft is named HAL Tejas. Recital of Sanskrit shlokas as background chorus in films, television advertisements and as slogans for corporate organizations has become a trend. Recently, Sanskrit also made an appearance in Western pop music in two recordings by Madonna. One, "Shanti/Ashtangi", from the 1998 album "Ray of Light", is the traditional Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga chant referenced above set to music. The second, "Cyber-raga", released in 2000 as a B-side to Madonna's single "Music", is a Sanskrit-language ode of devotion to a higher power and a wish for peace on earth. The climactic battle theme of The Matrix Revolutions features a choir singing a Sanskrit prayer from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad in the closing titles of the movie. Composer John Williams also featured a choir singing in Sanskrit for . The Sky1 version of the title sequence in season one of Battlestar Galactica 2004 features the Gayatri Mantra, taken from the Rig Veda (3.62.10). The composition was written by miniseries composer Richard Gibbs.

Computational linguistics

There have been suggestions to use Sanskrit as a metalanguage for knowledge representation in e.g. machine translation, and other areas of natural language processing because of its relatively high regular structure. This is due to Classical Sanskrit being a regularized, prescriptivist form abstracted from the much more complex and richer Vedic Sanskrit. This leveling of the grammar of Classical Sanskrit began during the Brahmana phase, and had not yet completed by the time of Pāṇini, when the language had fallen out of popular use.

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

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last=Pollock
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Further reading

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last=Cameron
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last=Coulson
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year=2003
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location=London

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last=Goldman
first=Robert P.
title=
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year=1999
publisher=Center for South Asia Studies, University of California
location=Berkeley

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last=Kale
first=M. R. (Moreshwar Ramchandra)
title=A Higher Sanskrit Grammar
isbn=8120801784
year=1988
origyear=1894
publisher=Motilal Banarsidass
location=Delhi
url=http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/KALEScan/disp1/index1.php?sfx=png

Citation

last=Macdonell
first=Arthur Anthony
title=A Sanskrit Grammar for Students
isbn=81-246-0094-5
year=1997
publisher=D.K. Printworld
location=New Delhi

Citation

last=Maurer
first=Walter Harding
title=The Sanskrit Language: An Introductory Grammar and Reader
isbn=0-7007-1382-4
year=2000
publisher=Curzon Press
location=Richmond, Surrey

Citation

last=Shastri
first=Vagish
title=Conversational Sanskrit
isbn=81-85570-12-4
year=2000
publisher=Vāgyoga Chetanāpitham
location=Varanasi

Citation

last=Monier-Williams
first=Monier
authorlink=Monier Monier-Williams
title=A Practical Grammar Of The Sanskrit Language Arranged With Reference To The Classical Languages Of Europe For The Use Of English Students
year=1846
publisher=W. H. Allen & co.
url=http://books.google.com/?id=REQhAAAAMAAJ
;Grammars
Whitney, William Dwight ''The Roots, Verb-Forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language: (A Supplement to His Sanskrit Grammar)''
Wackernagel, Debrunner, ''Altindische Grammatik'', Göttingen.
*vol. I. Phonology Jacob Wackernagel (1896)
*vol. II.1. Introduction to morphology, nominal composition, Wackernagel (1905)
*vol. II.2. nominal suffixes, J. Wackernagel and Albert Debrunner (1954)
*vol. III. nominal inflection, numerals, pronouns, Wackernagel and Debrunner (1930)
Delbrück, B. ''Altindische Tempuslehre'' (1876) ;Dictionaries
Otto Böhtlingk, Rudolph Roth, ''Petersburger Wörterbuch'', 7 vols., 1855–75
Otto Böhtlingk, ''Sanskrit Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung'' 1883–86 (1998 reprint, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi)
Manfred Mayrhofer, ''Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen'', 1956–76
Manfred Mayrhofer, ''Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen'', 3 vols., 2742 pages, 2001, ISBN 3-8253-1477-4

External links

Academic Courses on Sanskrit Around The World
Samskrita Bharati, organization promoting Sanskrit
Sanskrit Alphabet in Devanagari, Gujarati, Bengali, and Thai scripts with an extensive list of Devanagari, Gujarati, and Bengali conjuncts

Software

Romanized Nepali Unicode Keyboard developed by OOPSLite Technologies
Sanskrit transliteration software with font conversion to Latin and other Indian Languages

Sanskrit documents

Sanskrit Documents: Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc. and a metasite with links to translations, dictionaries, tutorials, tools and other Sanskrit resources.
Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon
Gretil: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.
Gaudiya Grantha Mandira – A Sanskrit Text Repository. This site also provides encoding converter.
Sanskrit texts at Sacred Text Archive
Digital Library of India at Ernet.in and IIIT.in, scanned/OCRed copies of public-domain books

Primers

A Practical Sanskrit Introductory by Charles Wikner
Sanskrit Self Study by Chitrapur Math
An Analytical Cross Referenced Sanskrit Grammar By Lennart Warnemyr

fonte: Wikipedia